Module 2: Behaviour and Social Change Theory in C4D
Unit 1: Individual-Level Change Theories
- Introduction
- Discussion
- Readings/Resources
Introduction
In this unit you will look at behaviour change theories and factors that can motivate or encourage individuals to change their current behaviours. You will examine individual level constructs such as knowledge, attitudes and perceptions that either influence or impede change in behaviors. To explore individual-level change, we will cover the following theories:
- Maslow's Theory of Human Motivation
- The Health Belief Model
- The Theory of Reasoned Action/Theory of Planned Behaviour
- The Stages of Change/Transtheoretical Model
Learning Objectives
Based on the readings, viewings and discussion, by the end of this unit, you will be able to:
- Identify core concepts from key individual-level change communication theories
- Describe how concepts and strategies from individual-level change communication theories can inform strategic choices for C4D interventions.
Background: Putting Individual-Level Change Theories in Context
When we do C4D work, we are trying to encourage change in individual behaviours by understanding and influencing the behaviour of key audiences and participants in our communication strategy. We are interested in their knowledge, attitudes and norms, as well as any other real, perceived, or psychological barriers or facilitators to changing behaviour.
Most theorists and practitioners working in C4D today recognize that while individual-level change is important (and thus individual-level theories are essential), all individuals exist within a larger “ecology” that includes the family, the community and society as a whole. The socio-ecological model (SEM), for example, locates individual behaviour within larger social structures and acknowledges that individual behaviour should be considered in context, in relation to the family, institutions, community and national-level history, policies and laws.
Consider behaviour in a wider context[1]
As you read about individual-level theories, remember that these theories are often used in conjunction with other theories related to community, culture and society. We need not think about different theories as requiring us to make an “either/or” choice (individual or community/societal level) but rather allowing us to adopt an inclusive, “both/and” orientation whereby theoretical concepts, from individual-psychological to social norms-societal, can be equally embraced and applied in conjunction with one another.
Although many of the components of individual-level change seem like common sense, learning their names and the ways they relate to each other gives us a common framework and shared vocabulary for talking to other C4D communicators, practitioners, government counterparts, and other change agents who we may be working with in the field. Also, the things that we might think are common sense might be new to other people, just as what other people take for granted might give us new ideas for trying to persuade individuals to take new positive actions or stop harmful practices.
Each of these theories is widely used in communication initiatives that focus on changing individual attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours.
Image source: University of Victoria, Center for addictions research of British Columbia: http://carbc.ca/HelpingSchools/ImplementingPromisingPractices/tabid/638/agentType/View/PropertyID/397/Default.aspx
[Jump to: Discussion Questions]
Discussion
Read this short synopsis and then answer the discussion questions below.
Sociologist Kurt Lewin once wrote: “There is nothing so practical as a good theory.” [1] One theory that is widely used and very practical is Abraham Maslow’s Theory of Human Motivation. [2]
The theory explains that humans must first meet basic physiological and safety needs (food, water, shelter, etc.) before addressing "higher" needs such as social relations, esteem, or “self-actualization” (e.g., a fulfilling career). In relation to behaviour change, Maslow's hierarchy of needs provides a reference to understand barriers to change for any behavior.
The theory suggests that when planning and designing an intervention, success may be limited in circumstances/contexts where people are focused on meeting basic needs or have other priorities. For example, if someone is worrying about feeding their family they may not be thinking about vaccinations or open defecation (even though they should be, for obvious health reasons). In short, humans strive to meet their basic needs first. Higher order needs are less of a priority than basic, physiological and safety needs. It’s important to remember that certain health behaviours, while perceived by health workers as essential for survival and thus a basic need, may not be perceived by community members as life-saving. Many C4D interventions are designed to demonstrate health risks and to communicate that some behaviours, like hand-washing with soap, can be a life-saving action (thus meeting a basic need).
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Discussion Questions
- Often times when we are promoting certain issues such as vaccination, maternal nutrition or school retention we are faced with communities struggling to meet basic needs. How do you deal with such situations? What are your experiences promoting certain practices in the context of poverty, conflict or food insecurity?
- Identify some (3-5) core concepts from the individual-level change theories that you learned about in the readings and found potentially relevant/useful for C4D work. You are also free to describe theories/concepts that you found limited, and less useful. Are these concepts more useful for certain programme areas than others? Please explain.
If you are in group 1: Click here to go to the discussion site.
If you are in group 2: Click here to go to the discussion site.
If you are in group 3: Click here to go to the discussion site.
To contribute to discussion, post your thoughts and respond to the ideas of fellow participants. Remember: The more you reflect and share, the more you learn!
References:
Lewin, K. (1951) Field theory in social science; selected theoretical papers. D. Cartwright (ed.). New York: Harper & Row, p. 169.
Maslow, A.H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370-96.
Readings and Resources
Required Readings
Family Health International, (1996). Behavior change -- A summary of four major theories. AIDSCAP Behavioral Research Unit. [13 p.]
Hayden, J. (2009). Introduction to Health Behavior Theory, (Chapter 4, pp. 31 – 44). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett. [14 p.]
University of Twente (n.d.). Health belief model. Retrieved from http://www.utwente.nl/cw/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20clusters/Health%20Communication/Health_Belief_Model.doc/. [1 p.]
Note: This brief document repeats some information from the “summary of major theories” reading above, but also has a helpful table format with concept, definition and “application” columns – this last column provides good examples of how HBM can be applied in health promotion.
Ajzen, I. (n.d.). TPB Diagram (web page). Retrieved from http://www.people.umass.edu/aizen/tpb.diag.html. [1 p.]
Note: This diagram has “clickable concepts” that provide definitions and additional information. The diagram covers the “Theory of Planned Behavior,” which is an evolution of the Theory of Reasoned Action (1980). TRA became TPB when the concept of “perceived behavioral control” was added.
Cancer Research Prevention Center (n.d.). Detailed overview of the transtheoretical model (web page). Retrieved from http://www.uri.edu/research/cprc/TTM/detailedoverview.htm. [14 p.]
Required Viewings
- This video is a good example of how a creative and compelling story is used to convey the severity of cholera and the importance of hand-washing with soap and other key hygiene behaviors, thereby linking key behaviours to basic needs.
Video 2: Stages of Change Model
- This video provides good examples that help illustrate the Stages of Change model.
Video 3: Paolo Mefalopolous talks about using theory in C4D interventions.
- In this video, Paolo Mefalopolous from UNICEF Uruguay discusses the use of theory in C4D work.
Optional Readings
The following short readings bridge research and theory with practice by providing concrete examples of how theoretical concepts from this unit and the module as a whole are used in interventions that relate to subject matter of interest to UNICEF staff members.
Al-Akour, N., et al. (2010). Factors affecting intention to breastfeed among Syrian and Jordanian mothers: a comparative cross-sectional study. International Breastfeeding Journal 5(6). [8 p.]
Curtis, V.A., Danquah, L. O., and Aunger, R. V. (2009). Planned, motivated and habitual hygiene behaviour: An eleven country review. Health Education Research 24(4). 655 – 673. [19 p.]
Weinrich, N. K. (1999). The “Don’t Kid Yourself” campaign case study. Excerpted from Hands-On Social Marketing: A Step-by-Step Guide by Nedra Kline Weinreich (Sage Publications, 1999). [13 p.]